Recent scientific research supports dan shen’s traditional usage as a remedy for heart and circulatory problems such as angina and palpitations. The Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing), the earliest of all Chinese herbal texts, listed dan shen as an herb that “invigorates the blood,” and it is still used as a circulatory remedy. In particular, it is taken for period pain and other conditions resulting from circulatory congestion.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to China, dan shen is now cultivated in northeastern China and Inner Mongolia. It requires moist, sandy soil and is propagated by root division in spring. The root is harvested from late autumn through early spring.

Related Species

Sage (S. officinalis) is closely related, but is used for an entirely different range of medical problems. In Mexico, the related species S. divinorum is used as a hallucinogen.

Key Constituents

• Diterpenes (tanshinones)
• Phenolic compounds
• Volatile oil
• Vitamin E

Key Actions

• Tonic to heart and circulation
• Anticoagulant
• Dilates the blood vessels
• Sedative
• Antibacterial

Research

Tanshinones: There has been extensive research into dan shen in China, and the tanshinones have been shown to have a profound effect on coronary circulation, reducing the symptoms of angina and improving heart function.

Heart attack: The whole herb (rather than isolated constituents) has been used in China to assist patients who are recovering from a heart attack, and it appears to support heart function at this critical time. Clinical trials in China, however, have shown that dan shen is most effective when taken as a preventative, rather than as a remedy after the heart attack has taken place.

Other research: Many recent clinical trials involving dan shen have used Chinese herbal combinations, rather than dan shen alone, so it is hard to draw conclusions. However, they do provide further evidence of dan shen’s usefulness in cardiovascular problems such as high blood pressure, angina, and heart disease. Unusually, two clinical trials in China (2012) found that injected extracts of dan shen were helpful in preeclampsia, a serious condition during pregnancy which involves fluid retention and high blood pressure.

Traditional & Current Uses

Circulatory stimulant: Dan shen has been esteemed by the Chinese for thousands of years as a circulatory stimulant. Like hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha), it is a safe, effective remedy for many circulatory problems. It particularly benefits coronary circulation, opening up the arteries and improving blood flow to the heart, and is therefore helpful in treating coronary heart disease. Though it does not lower blood pressure, dan shen relaxes the blood vessels and improves circulation throughout the body.

Circulatory congestion: Dan shen is used traditionally to treat conditions caused by blood stagnation, primarily those affecting the lower abdomen, such as absent or painful periods and fibroids.

Sedative: The sedative action of dan shen helps to calm the nerves, and it is therefore helpful in treating angina, a condition made worse by anxiety and worry. Palpitations, insomnia, and irritability also benefit from dan shen’s sedative properties.

Justly famous as the original source of salicylic acid (the forerunner of aspirin), white willow and closely related species have been used for thousands of years in Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America to relieve joint pain and manage fevers. Dioscorides, a Greek physician in the 1st century CE, suggested taking “willow leaves, mashed with a little pepper and drunk with wine” to relieve lower back pain.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to much of Europe, white willow is also found in North Africa and Asia, thriving in damp areas, such as on riverbanks. It is propagated from semi-ripe cuttings in summer or from hardwood cuttings in winter. The trees are frequently pollarded and bark is stripped from branches of 2- to 5-year-old trees in spring.

Related Species

Many Salix species, for example crack willow (S. fragilis), are used interchangeably with white willow. S. acmophylla is used on the Indian subcontinent as a remedy for fevers. In North American herbal medicine, black willow (S. nigra) is given as an anaphrodisiac (sexual depressant).

Key Constituents

• Phenolic glycosides (up to 11%)
• Salicin
• Flavonoids
• Polyphenols

Key Actions

• Anti-inflammatory
• Analgesic
• Reduces fever
• Antirheumatic
• Astringent

Research

Salicylic acid & aspirin: Salicylic acid, a strongly anti-inflammatory and analgesic compound, was first isolated from salicin in willow bark in 1838. It was the forerunner of aspirin, a chemical drug developed in Germany during 1899. Salicylic acid (and salicin) has many of the properties of aspirin but causes notably fewer side effects. As such, it is now being widely researched as an alternative to aspirin-based anti-inflammatory medicines such as ibuprofen. Unlike aspirin, salicylic acid does not thin the blood, and any problems it might cause within the digestive tract are likely to be minor.

Clinical trials: Over the last 15 years, clinical trials have shown that high-strength willow bark extract offers an effective alternative to mainstream anti-inflammatory medicines, particularly in treating conditions such as osteoarthritis and lower back pain. In a 2008 clinical trial published in Phytomedicine, among people with arthritis of the hip or knee, aged between 50 and 75, those taking willow bark extract, after 6 weeks, were rated by doctors as doing significantly better than those taking standard aspirin-based medication. Those taking willow bark reported far fewer side effects.

Traditional & Current Uses

Joint remedy: White willow is an excellent remedy for arthritic and rheumatic pain affecting the back, and joints such as the knees and hips, though large doses may be required, such as a standardized tablet. In combination with other herbs and dietary changes, it relieves inflammation and swelling, and improves mobility in painful or creaky joints.

Fevers & pain: White willow is taken to manage high fevers. It may also be used to ease headaches and head pain.

Menopause: A cooling herb that reduces sweating, willow bark can be helpful in controlling symptoms such as hot flashes and night sweats.

Rosemary is a well-known and greatly valued herb that is native to southern Europe. It has been used since antiquity to improve and strengthen the memory. To this day it is burned in the homes of students in Greece who are about to take exams. Rosemary has a longstanding reputation as a tonic, invigorating herb, imparting a zest for life that is to some degree reflected in its distinctive aromatic taste.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to the Mediterranean, rosemary grows freely in much of southern Europe and is cultivated throughout the world. It is propagated from seed or cuttings in spring and prefers a warm, moderately dry climate and a sheltered site. The branches are gathered during the summer after flowering and dried in the shade.

Key Constituents

• Volatile oil (1–2%) containing borneol, camphene, camphor, cineole
• Flavonoids (apigenin, diosmin)
• Tannins
• Rosmarinic acid
• Diterpenes (including carnosic acid and carnosol)

Key Actions

• Tonic
• Stimulant
• Astringent
• Nervine
• Anti-inflammatory
• Antioxidant

Research

General circulation: A 2011 study published in Phytotherapy Research found that rosemary exerted anti-inflammatory and protective effects on the inner lining of blood vessels in young adults. Such research supports the understanding that many active compounds in rosemary support a healthy circulation. A small 2006 clinical trial in Germany concluded (in line with traditional usage) that rosemary raised blood pressure in people suffering from low blood pressure. All those taking rosemary also reported feeling better at the end of the trial.

Other actions: Japanese laboratory research in 2003 found that diterpenes within rosemary (carnosic acid and carnosol) strongly stimulated nerve growth factor, suggesting that rosemary may stimulate nerve repair. A 2015 review in Cancer Letters stated that these constituents also had “promising results of anticancer activity.”

Traditional & Current Uses

Circulatory stimulant: Rosemary has a central place in European herbal medicine as a warming, tonic remedy that stimulates blood flow throughout the body, especially in those with low blood pressure. It is thought to promote blood flow to the head, thus improving memory and concentration. It may be taken to relieve migraine and headaches and encourages hair growth and health.

Poor circulation: Thought to raise low blood pressure, the herb is valuable for fainting and weakness associated with deficient circulation.

Restorative: Rosemary aids recovery from long-term stress and chronic illness. It is thought to stimulate the adrenal glands and is used specifically for debility, especially when accompanied by poor circulation and digestion.

Uplifting herb: Rosemary is often prescribed for people who are stressed and “failing to thrive.” Valued as an herb that raises the spirits, it is useful for mild to moderate depression.

Other uses: Applied as a lotion or diluted essential oil, rosemary eases aching, rheumatic muscles. Add the infusion, or essential oil, to bathwater for a reviving soak.

An Arctic plant that thrives in extreme environments, rhodiola’s rose-colored roots have pronounced medicinal activity, enhancing the ability of the body to deal with stresses of all kinds. An adaptogen, similar to ginseng (Panax ginseng), rhodiola also acts on the central nervous system, supporting memory and concentration under conditions of stress, and helping to relieve nervous exhaustion and mild to moderate depression.

Habitat and Cultivation

Rhodiola is indigenous to mountainous and Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere, including Canada, Scotland, Scandinavia, Russia, and Alaska. Rhodiola is still mostly collected from the wild, threatening its long-term survival in some regions, though it is now cultivated in Canada, Norway, and Finland.

Related Species

The central Asian R. quadrifida is used in Mongolia to enhance strength and vigor. R. crenulata and R. rosea are used in Chinese medicine, though across China many different species of Rhodiola are used to alleviate fatigue and protect against the cold. Chinese research into R. crenulata indicates that this species aids endurance and has a protective activity against radiation.

Key Constituents

• Phenylpropanoids (rosavins—occuring only in Rhodiola rosea)
• Salidroside
• Flavonoids
• Monoterpenes (including rosiridin)
• Triterpenes

Key Actions

• Adaptogen
• Antidepressant
• Aids mental performance
• Anti-inflammatory

Research

Adaptogen: Rhodiola is an unusual medicine—an adaptogen that combines the ability to promote physical and mental endurance with antidepressant and anti-inflammatory activity. Though large-scale clinical trials are lacking, research shows that rhodiola root increases the capacity to resist physical and mental fatigue.

Clinical trials: In a 2000 Armenian clinical trial, young healthy hospital doctors working night shifts were given a rhodiola extract. After 2 weeks, those taking the extract showed significantly fewer signs of mental fatigue, including better levels of concentration and short-term memory, than those taking a placebo.

In a 2015 U.S. clinical trial, 57 adults with moderate depression were given rhodiola or sertraline, a conventional antidepressant. Both medicines proved effective, but those taking rhodiola reported fewer side effects.

Traditional & Current Uses

Key traditional uses: In Europe and Asia, the central core of rhodiola’s use in traditional medicine has always been its power to increase endurance and work rate, and the capacity to cope with high altitude and winter cold. The roots have also been taken to promote longevity, ease depression, and treat infection. Rhodiola is now most commonly taken to improve mental and physical performance and to protect against the harmful effects of ongoing stress.

Russian medicine: Rhodiola became an official medicine in Russia in 1969, being recommended for a wide range of health problems, not only as an adaptogen, but for psychiatric and neurological problems, such as depression and schizophrenia.

Other uses: Rhodiola is traditionally considered to help improve fertility in both men and women. In Siberia, rhodiola roots are given to marrying couples to promote fertility and the health of their future children. In Mongolia, alongside its use as a tonic, rhodiola is given for infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia, and is also used as a mouthwash for bad breath.

Chinese rhubarb has long been prized as the most useful purge in herbal medicine, safe even for young children due to its gentle action. It has been used in China for over 2,000 years and is an extremely effective treatment for many digestive problems. Paradoxically, it is a laxative when taken in large doses but has a constipating effect in small measures. The rhizome has an astringent, unpleasant taste.

Habitat & Cultivation

Native to China and Tibet, where the best-quality herb is still found, Chinese rhubarb now also grows in the West. It is found in the wild and is widely cultivated. It is grown from seed in spring or by root division in spring or autumn and requires a sunny position and well-drained soil. The rhizomes of 6–10-year-old plants are dug up in the autumn after the stem and leaves have turned yellow.

Related Species

R. tanguticum and R. officinale have similar uses to R. palmatum. These 3 species are considered to be superior in action to other rhubarbs. The familiar, edible rhubarb is R. rhaponticum.

Key Constituents

• Anthraquinones (about 3–5%), rhein, aloe-emodin, emodin
• Flavonoids (catechin)
• Phenolic acids
• Tannins (5–10%)
• Calcium oxalate

Key Actions

• Laxative
• Anti-inflammatory
• Astringent
• Stops bleeding
• Antibacterial

Research

Anthraquinones & tannins: Chinese rhubarb’s medicinal value is largely due to the irritant, laxative, and purgative properties of the anthraquinones, and in large doses the rhizome is strongly laxative. A 2007 Chinese study concluded that the anthraquinones in rhubarb “possess promising anticancer properties and could have a broad therapeutic potential.”

Antibacterial properties: Decoctions of the root have been shown to be effective against Staphylococcus aureus, an infectious bacterium that causes mouth ulcers and folliculitis (an acne-type infection of the beard area). In laboratory studies, rhubarb has been found to have notable activity against Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium that causes stomach ulcers.

Traditional & Current Uses

History: Chinese rhubarb was first mentioned in the 1st-century CE Chinese text The Divine Husbandman’s Classic, and has been grown in the West since 1732. It is one of the few herbs still used today in conventional as well as herbal medicine, and is listed in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1988.

Constipation: Large doses of Chinese rhubarb are combined with carminative herbs and taken as a laxative, helping to clear the colon without causing excessive cramping. This is useful for treating constipation where the muscles of the large intestine are weak.

Diarrhea: Small doses of the root are astringent, relieving irritation of the inner lining of the gut, thus reducing diarrhea.

Other uses: Chinese rhubarb can be applied to burns, boils, and carbuncles. The herb acts as a tonic and mild appetite stimulant and serves as a useful mouthwash for mouth ulcers.

An important Chinese tonic herb, rehmannia has figured extensively in many traditional herbal formulas and has an ancient history: it was referred to by Ge Hong, the 4th-century CE Chinese physician and alchemist. Rehmannia is a “longevity” herb and has a marked tonic action on the liver and kidneys. Research has confirmed its traditional use, showing that it protects the liver and is useful for hepatitis.

Habitat & Cultivation

Rehmannia grows wild on sunny mountain slopes in northern and northeastern parts of China, especially in Henan province. Rehmannia can be cultivated, in which case it is propagated from seed sown in autumn or spring. The root is harvested in autumn, after the plant has flowered.

Related Species

R. lutea is used in Chinese herbal medicine as a diuretic.

Key Constituents

• Iridoids
• Polysaccharides
• Phytosterols
• Phenethyl glycosides

Key Actions

• Tonic
• Anti-inflammatory
• Kidney tonic
• Lowers blood pressure
• Anti-diabetic
• Reduces fever
• Anti-hemorrhagic

Research

Liver remedy: Chinese research has shown rehmannia to be a very important liver-protective herb, preventing poisoning and liver damage. Clinical trials in China have demonstrated that it can be effective in treating hepatitis.

Other research: Chinese research over the last 10 years indicates that rehmannia has a positive stabilizing effect on bloodsugar regulation, and aids liver and pancreatic function. Ongoing preclinical research in China is examining the herb’s usefulness in preventing osteoporosis.

Traditional & Current Uses

Raw & prepared root: In Chinese herbal medicine, the root (di huang) is known as sheng di huang when it is eaten raw and shu di huang when it has been cooked in wine. The former is the most commonly taken remedy. Both are yin tonics, but have different therapeutic indications.

Sheng di huang: The raw root “cools the blood,” and is given to help lower fever in acute and chronic illnesses. Its cooling nature is reflected in its use for problems such as thirst and a red tongue that arise from “heat patterns.” Sheng di huang is useful for treating people with impaired liver function and is used specifically to treat hepatitis and other liver conditions.

Shu di huang: This preparation is used specifically for blood loss and “blood deficiency” states such as irregular and heavy menstrual bleeding. It is warming rather than cooling, and is considered to be a prime kidney tonic.

Blood pressure: Rehmannia is used to treat high blood pressure. Interestingly, while sheng di huang appears to raise blood pressure, shu di huang has the opposite effect.

Longevity: Rehmannia is a traditional and valuable tonic for old age. It is considered to help prevent senility.

Chinese formulas: The herb is an ingredient of many famous herbal formulas, most notably “the pill of eight ingredients,” which contemporary Chinese herbalists consider to “warm and invigorate the yang of the loins.”

A Chinese tonic herb with a bittersweet taste, fo ti is thought to concentrate qi (vital energy) in its root, so that taking this herb gives vitality to the body. It has always been considered a rejuvenating herb, helping to prevent aging and encouraging longevity. Traditionally, much folklore is attached to this herb, and large, old roots are thought to have remarkable powers.

Habitat & Cultivation

Fo ti is native to central and southern China, and is cultivated throughout that region. It is propagated from seed or by root division in spring, or from cuttings in summer. The plant requires well-fertilized soil and plenty of protection from winter weather. The roots of 3- to 4-year-old fo ti plants are unearthed and dried during the autumn. Older, larger roots are prized for their therapeutic properties, but are generally not available to obtain commercially.

Related Species

Bistort (P. bistorta), one of the most strongly astringent of all herbs, and knotgrass (P. aviculare) are used in European herbal medicine. They do not have the same tonic therapeutic properties as P. multiflorum. In Chinese herbal medicine, P. cuspidatum is used to treat amenorrhea (absence of periods).

Key Constituents

• Anthraquinone glycosides
• Stilbene glycoside
• Polyphenols
• Phospholipids, including lecithin

Key Actions

• Tonic
• Antioxidant
• Mild sedative
• Lowers cholesterol levels
• Neuroprotective

Research

Cholesterol levels: In animal experiments in China, fo ti was shown to significantly reduce raised blood cholesterol levels. Also, in a clinical trial, over 80% of patients with high blood cholesterol who had been taking decoctions of the root showed an improvement.

Blood-sugar levels: Chinese research has revealed that fo ti helps increase the levels of sugar in the blood.

Neuroprotective: Preclinical research points to fo ti having a stabilizing effect on brain function, and that it might—as traditional use would suggest—prove valuable in slowing aging processes within the central nervous system.

Traditional & Current Uses

Popular tonic: Although fo ti is not the earliest tonic herb listed in Chinese herbal medicine (it is first mentioned in 713 CE), it has become one of the most widely used. It is taken regularly by millions of people in the East for its rejuvenating and toning properties, and to increase fertility in both men and women.

Liver & kidney remedy: In Chinese herbal medicine, fo ti’s most important use is as a tonic for the liver and kidneys. By strengthening liver and kidney function, it helps cleanse the blood, enabling the qi to circulate freely around the whole body.

Nerve & blood tonic: Fo ti is given in Chinese herbal medicine to people with symptoms, such as dizziness, weakness, numbness, and blurred vision, that indicate inefficient nerves and “blood deficiency.”

Premature aging: Fo ti is prescribed in China for people showing signs of premature aging. This suggests it helps the body function in a balanced, healthy way. In particular, there is a lot of evidence to support the root’s use to aid reversing hair loss and graying of the hair.

Malaria: The herb is prescribed in the treatment of chronic malaria, when it is often combined with ginseng (Panax ginseng), dong quai (Angelica sinensis), as well as green tangerine peel (Citrus reticulata).

Produced by several Plantago species—P. ovata, P. psyllium, and P. indica—psyllium has been used as a safe and effective laxative for thousands of years in Europe, North Africa, and Asia. Given their small size and brown color, psyllium husks and seeds have been mistaken for fleas, hence their folk name flea seed. Bland-tasting, they swell when moistened, and have a jellylike consistency in the mouth.

Habitat & Cultivation

The three species that produce psyllium grow throughout southern Europe, North Africa, and Asia, especially in India, and are extensively cultivated. They are propagated from seed in spring and require plenty of sun. The seeds are harvested when ripe in late summer and early autumn.

Related Species

Common plantain (P. major) is prescribed for diarrhea and irritable bowel syndrome. Che qian zi (P. asiatica) is used in China as a diuretic, for diarrhea, and for bronchial congestion. The powdered husk is given late in pregnancy to aid normal presentation of the fetus (head-down position in the uterus).

Key Constituents

• Mucilage (arabinoxylan)
• Fixed oil (2.5%)—mainly linoleic, oleic, and palmitic fatty acids
• Starch

Key Actions

• Demulcent
• Bulk laxative
• Antidiarrheal

Research

Regulating bowel function: Clinical trials in the U.S., Germany, and Scandinavia during the 1980s have shown that psyllium has both a laxative and an antidiarrheal action.

Diabetes: A 1998 clinical trial with 125 patients concluded that 5 g of psyllium taken 3 times a day helped to lower blood-fat and -glucose levels in people with type 2 diabetes.

Traditional & Current Uses

Laxative: Psyllium is prescribed in conventional as well as herbal medicine for constipation, especially when the condition results from an over-tensed or over-relaxed bowel. Both husks and seeds contain high levels of fiber (the mucilage) and expand, becoming highly gelatinous when soaked in water. By maintaining a high water content within the large intestine, they increase the bulk of the stool, easing its passage.

Other bowel problems: Contrary to expectation, psyllium is a useful remedy for diarrhea. It is also an effective treatment for many other bowel problems, including irritable bowel syndrome, ulcerative colitis, and Crohn’s disease. In India, psyllium is commonly used to treat dysentery.

Hemorrhoid relief: Psyllium is valuable for hemorrhoids, helping to soften the stool and to reduce irritation of the veins.

Detoxifying herb: The jellylike mucilage produced when psyllium is soaked in water has the ability to absorb toxins within the large intestine. Psyllium is commonly taken to reduce auto-toxicity (the toxins are expelled from the body with the husks and seeds in the feces).

Digestive ailments: The soothing, protective effect imparted by the mucilage-rich husks and seeds benefits the whole gastrointestinal tract. Psyllium is taken for stomach and duodenal ulcers, and for acid indigestion.

Urinary infections: The demulcent action of psyllium extends to the urinary tract. In India, an infusion of the seeds (the only time this preparation is used) is given for urethritis.

External uses: When psyllium husks are soaked in an infusion of calendula (Calendula officinalis), they make an effective poultice for external use, drawing out infection from boils, abscesses, and whitlows (pus-filled swellings on the fingertips).

Kava has major ritual and cultural significance among the peoples of the Pacific Islands, where it is as much a part of daily social life as coffee is in the West. At modest doses, kava is calming and tranquilizing. At large doses, it leads to intoxication and euphoria, though without a hangover the next day. It has a hot, slightly aromatic and bitter taste and leaves the mouth feeling slightly numb.

Habitat & Cultivation

Kava is an indigenous Polynesian vine and grows throughout the Pacific Islands as far east as Hawaii. It is cultivated commercially in parts of the U.S. and in Australia. Kava is propagated from runners in late winter or early spring and is usually grown on frames. It needs well-drained, stony soil and a shady position. The root is harvested at any time of year.

Related Species

The closely related P. sanctum is native to Mexico. It is similar to kava in many ways; for example, it also contains kava lactones and is traditionally taken as a stimulant. Other related species include matico, betel, cubeb, and pepper (P. angustifolia, P. betle, P. cubeba and P. nigrum).

Key Constituents

• Resin containing kava lactones, including kawain
• Piperidine alkaloid (pipermethysticine)

Key Actions

• Tonic
• Reduces anxiety
• Urinary antiseptic
• Analgesic
• Induces sleep

Research

German ban: In 2002, German regulators banned kava products due to concerns that extracts were toxic to the liver and had led to 20 deaths. Many other countries followed Germany’s example. The ban was repealed by the German authorities in 2015. Those campaigning against it had long maintained that the traditional use of kava, especially water-based extracts of kava, were inherently safe.

Australian regulators had adopted this approach in 2003 by allowing the sale of water-based extracts of kava. A rigorous reexamination of the 20 fatal cases found that only two cases could in any way be attributed to the use of kava.

Anxiety: A 2003 review of kava found that “compared with placebo, kava extract is an effective symptomatic treatment for anxiety.” The authors commented that “few adverse events were reported in the reviewed trials.” Kava is non-addictive, and clinical evidence suggests it is also a safe and effective treatment for anxiety linked with depression, for insomnia, and for pain relief.

Traditional & Current Uses

Traditional aphrodisiac: Kava is valued in the South Sea Islands as a calming and stimulating intoxicant. It produces a euphoric state when taken in large quantities.

Relaxing remedy: Kava is a safe and proven remedy for anxiety that does not cause drowsiness or affect the ability to operate machinery. It is valuable for treating muscle tension as well as emotional stress.

Pain relief: With its tonic, strengthening, and mildly analgesic properties, kava is a good remedy for chronic pain, helping to reduce sensitivity and to relax muscles that are tensed in response to pain.

Arthritic conditions: The analgesic and cleansing diuretic effect of Kava often makes it a beneficial herb for treating rheumatic and arthritic problems such as gout. It helps to bring relief from pain and to remove waste products from the affected joint.

Antiseptic: Kava is routinely used by peoples of the South Pacific to treat infection, especially where pain is a key symptom. In New Guinea, it is taken to soothe and treat sore throats and to relieve toothache. It makes a valuable urinary antiseptic and will help in treating cystitis, urethritis, urinary frequency, and bladder irritability.

External uses: The herb makes a useful analgesic mouthwash for treating toothache and mouth ulcers.

Many parts of the avocado tree have a use in herbal medicine. The leaves and bark are effective remedies for digestive problems and coughs. As well as being extremely nutritious, the fruit has a wide range of medicinal uses. Native peoples of Guatemala, for example, use the pulp to stimulate hair growth, the rind to expel worms, and the seeds to treat diarrhea. The fruit pulp is used as a baby food in West Africa.

Habitat & Cultivation

Indigenous to Central America, avocado is widely cultivated for its fruit in tropical and subtropical areas, including Israel, Spain, and South Africa. It is propagated from seed. The leaves are harvested as needed; the unripe fruit is picked when fully grown.

Related Species

Other Persea species have similar fruits to avocado and are used in a similar way.

Key Constituents

Leaves & bark:

• Volatile oil (methylchavicol, alpha-pinene)
• Flavonoids
• Tannins

Fruit pulp:

• Unsaturated fats
• Protein (about 25%)
• Sesquiterpenes
• Vitamins A, B1, and B2

Key Actions

Leaves & bark:

• Astringent
• Carminative
• Relieve coughs
• Promote menstrual flow

Fruit pulp:

• Emollient
• Carminative

Rind:

• Eliminates worms

Research

Cholesterol: Research shows that the fruit helps lower cholesterol levels.

Poisons: Livestock that have grazed on avocado leaves, fruit, or bark have been observed to suffer less toxic effects from snake bite and other poisons.

Herpes simplex: Laboratory experiments have shown that avocado leaf extracts strongly inhibit the herpes simplex virus, responsible for cold sores and genital herpes.

Traditional & Current Uses

Leaves & bark: Avocado leaves and young bark stimulate menstruation and can induce abortion. The leaves are taken for diarrhea, bloating, and gas and are valuable for relieving coughs, for liver obstructions, and for clearing high uric acid levels, which cause gout.

Fruit: The rind is used to expel worms. The fruit pulp is considered to have aphrodisiac properties. Used externally, it soothes the skin. It is applied to suppurating wounds and to the scalp to stimulate hair growth.

Oil: The expressed oil of the avocado seed nourishes the skin. It softens rough, dry, or flaking skin and, massaged into the scalp, it improves hair growth.